Japanese Grammar Path

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Arc 1

Start speaking and understanding simple Japanese

12 units · 72 points

0Start here: Japanese sentence basicsKana readiness and the ideas used in Unit 1

1Your first sentences: X is Y8 points0/8

ですpolite copula 'is / are' (です・ます style) N5

はparticle は marking the topic/theme (as for ~) N5

〜は〜ですtopic-comment, polite: X は Y です (X is Y) N5

かparticle か: question marker; embedded question / uncertainty (〜かどうか) N5

のparticle の: possessive/linking (A の B = B of A) and nominalizer (clause → noun) N5

もparticle も: also, too (adds to a set) N5

ねsentence-final particle seeking agreement/confirmation; softens a statement N5

よsentence-final particle asserting/emphasizing information to the listener N5

2Mark who, what, where, and when9 points0/9

がparticle が marking the grammatical subject N5

をparticle を marking the direct object N5

にparticle に marking destination/direction and location of existence (に行く, にある/いる) N5

にparticle に marking the indirect object (recipient): to / for someone N5

へparticle へ marking direction/goal of movement (toward) N5

でparticle で: means/instrument, place of action, time/limit, cause N5

とparticle と: 'and' (exhaustive listing of nouns); 'with' (accompaniment) N5

からparticle から marking a starting point: from (place/time) N5

までuntil; as far as; up to; (emphatic) even N5

3Make verbs polite; say what there is5 points0/5

動詞のグループthe three verb classes — godan (u-verb), ichidan (ru-verb), and irregular (する・来る) — that determine how every verb conjugates N5

〜ますthe polite non-past ます and its paradigm — ます / ません / ました / ませんでした — the standard です・ます-register verb ending N5

くださいhonorific request: please give / please do ~ (てください) N5

〜があるthere is ~; to have ~ (for inanimate things, plain form) N5

〜がいるthere is ~; to exist (for living things) N5

4Describe things: い and な adjectives2 points0/2

い形容詞い-adjective conjugation: present 高い, negative 高くない, past 高かった, adverbial 高く N5

な形容詞な-adjective conjugation: 静かです / 静かな N / 静かじゃない / 静かでした / 静かに N5

5Plain (casual) form7 points0/7

だplain non-past copula 'is / are' (asserts identity or state) N5

〜は〜だtopic-comment: X は Y だ (X is Y) N5

〜じゃないis not ~ (casual negative copula); also tag 'right?' N5

だったpast-tense plain copula 'was / were' N5

〜じゃなかったwas not ~ (casual past negative copula) N5

ないplain negative auxiliary 〜ない; also 'there is not / does not exist' N5

た形the plain past (た) form of verbs and adjectives; the base for たら, たり, and clauses like 〜たことがある N5

6Connect and continue actions with て9 points0/9

てthe て-form: links clauses, sequences actions, and forms soft requests N5

でで = te-form of だ/です: 'being ~, and...' (学生で、22歳) N5

〜てくださいplease do ~ (polite request) N5

ているbe ~ing (progressive); resultant ongoing state N5

てからafter ~ing N5

てもいいmay ~; it's all right to ~ (permission) N5

てはいけないmust not ~ (prohibition) N5

てしまうdo ~ completely; end up ~ing (often regrettably) N4

〜てみるtry ~ing; do ~ and see (what happens) N4

7Give, receive, and ask for help5 points0/5

あげるto give (something to someone), from the giver's viewpoint N5

くれる(someone) gives to me / my in-group (giver's action toward speaker) N5

〜てあげるto do something for someone (benefactive auxiliary) N4

〜てくれる(someone) does ~ for me / my in-group (benefactive, toward speaker) N4

〜てもらうto have someone do something for you (benefactive, receiver's viewpoint) N4

8Want, invite, and express uncertainty7 points0/7

たいwant to (do) — V-stem + たい N5

ほしいwant (something) (〜がほしい); with て-form, want someone to do (〜てほしい) N5

意向形the volitional (〜よう/おう) form: 'let's ~ / I'll ~ / shall we ~'; the base for ようとする and ようとおもう N4

だろうprobably ~ / I suppose ~ (conjecture); also seeks agreement '~right?' N5

でしょうpolite conjecture 'probably ~' / seeks agreement '~right?' (= polite だろう) N5

〜かもしれないmight / maybe / perhaps ~ N4

〜はずshould / be supposed to / be expected to ~ (はずだ, reasoned expectation) N4

9If and when: the four conditionals4 points0/4

〜とconditional と: whenever/if X, (then the natural/automatic result) N4

たらif; when (conditional); how about (suggestion) N4

〜ばconditional 'if ~' (ば-form): general, hypothetical, and natural-consequence conditions N4

ならif; if it is the case that ~ (contextual conditional, takes up a topic) N4

10Join ideas: reason, contrast, and time9 points0/9

〜からbecause; since (reason/cause) N5

のでbecause; since (states a reason, softer/more objective than から) N5

けどbut / though / however (casual) N5

がconjunctive が meaning 'but' (contrast between two clauses) N4

〜のにalthough ~; even though ~ (concessive, often with surprise/regret) N4

ながらwhile ~ing (two actions at once); also: although; even though N4

とき / 時when ~; at the time that ~ (temporal clause) N5

前にbefore ~ing; prior to (an action) N5

〜あと(で)after ~ (doing) / later N4

11Turn actions into things, compare, and change7 points0/7

ことnominalizer turning a clause into a noun; also clause-final ことだ giving a rule/instruction (should ~) N4

〜のが好きto like ~ing N5

〜よりより: 'than' (comparison); also formal 'from' (starting point) N4

のほうが~ is more (comparative: AのほうがBより) N5

〜より〜のほうが~ is more ~ than ~ (comparison) N5

一番most / the most ~ (superlative marker: 一番高い) N5

〜になる・〜くなるto become ~ (noun/na-adj になる; i-adj くなる) N5

Arc 2

Build everyday Japanese

10 units · 294 points

12Everyday reference and detail21 points0/21

〜がありますthere is ~; to exist (for inanimate things) N5

このadnominal demonstrative: this ~ (modifies a following noun) N5

さんpolite title suffix (Mr/Ms/Mrs) attached to names N5

なるbecome; 〜になる/〜くなる: come to be ~ (change of state) N5

来るto come (来る) N5

〜のが上手to be good at ~ing N5

〜のが下手to be bad at ~ing N5

〜ちゃんaffectionate name suffix 〜ちゃん (for children, close friends, cute things) N5

たちplural suffix for people (私たち, 子供たち) N5

どんなwhat kind of ~ (interrogative pre-noun adjectival) N5

を使ってusing; by means of ~ (using a tool/method) N5

前before; in front of; prior to (〜の前/〜前 temporal-spatial reference) N5

好きだto like (な-adjective predicate; object marked with が) N5

少ないfew; little; scarce N5

知るto know; come to know (notable for the 知っている state form) N5

要るto need; to require (要る) N5

〜方way / manner of doing ~ (作り方 'how to make', 食べ方 'way of eating') N4

〜頃around / about (a point in time: 3時頃) N4

こんなadnominal demonstrative: this kind of; such (near speaker) N4

にするdecide on ~; make/turn (X) into ~ N4

連体修飾節relative (noun-modifying) clause: a clause placed before a noun to modify it N4

13Describe and refer to things in more ways30 points0/30

〜でございますto be ~ (polite copula, humble/formal です) N4

〜は〜の一つだ~ is one of the ~ N4

〜ということthe fact/idea that ~; it means that ~ (nominalizes a quoted phrase) N4

〜のの pronoun: 'one' — stands in for a noun (赤いの = the red one) N4

さnominalizing suffix (degree: 高さ); also assertive/casual sentence-final particle N4

ところthe point/moment of an action; just about to / in the middle of / just finished ~ N4

のことabout; concerning (matters relating to ~) N4

のは〜だcleft sentence: 'the one who/that ... is ~' (focus marking) N4

ものnominalizer for a concrete/tangible thing (contrast こと abstract); also explanatory もの N4

〜がする(sensation) 音/におい/味/感じがする: a sound/smell/taste/feeling occurs N4

〜に気がつくto notice ~; to realize ~ N4

〜方polite pluralizing suffix for people (あなた方, 先生方) N4

〜目ordinal suffix 〜目 (三番目 'the third'); also 〜め 'slightly ~' (多め) N4

〜間interval / for a period of ~ (三日間, 二人の間) N4

こういうsuch; this kind of (modifies a noun) N4

このようなsuch; this kind of (formal equivalent of こんな) N4

さしあげるto give (humble, to a superior); also てさしあげる 'do for' (humble) N4

そういうthat kind of ~; such ~ N4

どのようなwhat kind of ~ (polite/formal equivalent of どんな) N4

ままas it is; unchanged; (doing/being) ~ and leaving it that way N4

ままでin the state of ~; while remaining ~ N4

やるto do (casual = する); to give (to inferior/animal, casual) N4

らpluralizing/approximating suffix for people (彼ら, 私たち's casual ら) N4

何でもanything; everything; (sentence-initial) I hear that ~; apparently N4

君familiar address suffix attached to names, typically for peers or juniors (often male) N4

命令形the imperative (command) verb form: 行け, 食べろ, しろ N4

少なくないnot few; quite a lot of ~ N4

様honorific title suffix (Mr/Ms, very polite); also 〜さま 'state/manner' N4

自動詞・他動詞intransitive vs transitive verb pairs (a grammar distinction) N4

見えるbe visible; (〜に/ように見える) appear; seem N4

14Everyday actions, states, and change29 points0/29

まだ〜ていませんhave not ~ yet (still not done) N5

〜たことがあるhave (once) done ~ before; there was a time when ~ (past experience) N5

〜ようとするtry to ~; be about to ~ N4

〜ようにするmake an effort to ~; see to it that ~ N4

〜ようになるcome to ~; reach the point where ~ (change of state) N4

しまうfinish completely; (regrettably) end up ~ — basis of てしまう N4

〜られるpassive られる: the subject is acted upon (also adversative passive) N4

使役形the causative (〜せる/させる) form: 'make/let someone do'; the base for the causative-passive and for 〜させてください N4

せるcausative auxiliary (make/let someone do) for 五段 verbs; paired with させる N4

させるmake/let (someone) do ~ (causative) N4

させられるbe made/forced to do (causative-passive) N3

〜させてくださいplease let me ~ (causative request) N4

〜たところjust (finished) ~ing; had just ~ N4

〜たばかりjust ~ed; only just finished ~ing (a moment ago) N4

〜ていく(aspect) to go on doing; do and move away / forward in time N4

〜ていたwas ~ing; had ~ (past continuous/state of ている) N4

〜ているところin the middle of ~ing (right now) N4

〜てくる(aspect) begin to ~; come to ~; do and move toward the speaker/now N4

〜とくcolloquial contraction of 〜ておく (do in advance / for later) N4

〜るところだabout to ~ (just before doing it) N4

〜出すsuddenly start ~ing / burst into ~ing (笑い出す, 降り出す) N4

〜始めるbegin to ~ / start ~ing (compound-verb aspect: 降り始める) N4

〜続けるcontinue ~ing; keep doing (compound-verb auxiliary) N4

てある(something) has been done and remains so (resultant state) N4

ておくdo ~ in advance / in preparation; leave ~ done N4

なくなるcome to no longer ~; cease to be; disappear / run out N4

終わるfinish (doing); end (Vます-stem + 終わる) N4

れるpassive/potential/spontaneous/honorific auxiliary (godan verbs) N4

見られるcan see / be seen (potential-passive of 見る); 〜と見られる: be regarded as N4

15Requests, advice, and obligation34 points0/34

ないでくださいplease do not ~ (polite negative request) N5

〜がほしいto want (a thing); desire something N5

〜たほうがいいhad better ~; it's better to ~ (advice) N5

〜ないほうがいいhad better not ~; it's better not to ~ N5

〜なくてもいいdon't have to ~; need not ~ N5

〜ましょうかshall I ~?; shall we ~? (offer of help / suggestion) N5

〜ませんかwon't you ~?; would you like to ~? (polite invitation) N5

てはいけませんmust not ~ (polite prohibition) N5

なくてはいけないmust ~; have to ~ N5

なくてはならないmust ~; have to ~ (obligation) N5

のですexplanatory のだ, polite form: 'the fact is ~ / it's that ~' N5

ましょうpolite volitional: let's ~; shall I/we ~ N5

んですexplanatory のだ in polite spoken form: it is that ~; the reason is ~ N5

〜と(言う/思う)quotative と: marks a quote or thought (〜と言う, 〜と思う) N5

すぎるtoo much; excessively (V-stem/Adj + すぎる) N5

〜ちゃいけないmust not ~ (colloquial 〜てはいけない; also 〜じゃいけない) N5

なくちゃgotta ~; have to ~ (colloquial contraction of なくては) N5

どうぞplease / go ahead / by all means (offering or granting) N5

〜やすいeasy to ~; tend to ~ (verb stem + やすい) N4

いただくreceive (humble); 〜ていただく = have someone do ~ for me (humble benefactive) N4

〜ようと思うintend to ~; be thinking of ~ing N4

〜方がいいhad better ~ / it's better to ~ (advice; often past form 〜た方がいい) N4

ことができるpotential construction: can ~; be able to ~ N4

つもりintend to ~; be convinced that ~ N4

ないといけないmust ~; have to ~ (obligation) N4

なければいけないmust ~; have to ~ N4

なければならないmust ~; have to ~ (social/general obligation) N4

のだexplanatory のだ/んだ: 'the fact is ~ / it's that ~' (gives background or reason) N4

ようだit seems / looks like ~; ~ as if (conjecture & resemblance) N4

〜と思うto think that ~; I think ~ N4

というcalled ~; the ~ that (says); naming/quotative linker N4

〜がるshow signs of / outwardly display a feeling (3rd person: 寒がる, 欲しがる) N4

〜くするto make (something) ~ (adverbial form of an i-adjective + する) N4

〜たがるto show signs of wanting to ~ (about a third person) N4

16Casual requests and interaction33 points0/33

〜ちまうcolloquial/rough 〜てしまう: end up ~ing / do completely N4

〜ちゃうcolloquial 〜てしまう: do completely / end up ~ing (completion or regret) N4

〜ていただけませんかcould you please ~? (very polite/humble request) N4

〜てくれないwon't you ~? / can I get you to ~? (request; also 〜てもらえない) N4

〜てやる / やる(casual benefactive) do something for someone (inferior/intimate); casual 'give' N4

〜化するto turn into ~; to -ize (国際化する, 悪化する) N4

ございますthere is; to exist (polite form of ある/いる) N4

ていただくhave someone do ~ (humble of てもらう) N4

てくださるsomeone kindly does ~ for me (honorific of てくれる) N4

にくいhard to ~; difficult to do (Vます-stem + にくい) N4

のようなlike; such as; resembling ~ (noun-modifying) N4

真っ〜completely; pure ~ (intensifying prefix: 真っ赤, 真っ白, 真ん中) N4

〜が必要~ is necessary; to need ~ N4

〜が見られる~ can be seen / observed; ~ is found N4

〜ことがあるthere are times when ~; ~ sometimes happens N4

〜じゃないかisn't it ~?; right?; (also exclamation/seeking agreement) N4

〜そうだlooks like ~; seems ~ (appearance/conjecture, from verb-/adj-stem) N4

〜そうに・〜そうなlooking ~; seeming ~ (adverbial/adnominal of appearance そう) N4

〜たらいいですかwhat should I ~?; how should I ~? (seeking instruction) N4

〜たらどうwhy don't you ~?; how about ~? (suggestion, also 〜たらどうですか) N4

〜ではないかisn't it ~?; right? (formal/written, = じゃないか) N4

〜といいit'd be nice if ~; I hope ~; you should ~ (also 〜たらいい) N4

〜とされているit is said / regarded as ~; is taken to be ~ N4

〜と考えられているit is thought / considered that ~ N4

〜と言ってもいいyou could say that ~; one might say ~ N4

〜と言われているit is said that ~ N4

〜ないとhave to ~; must ~ (lit. 'if you don't ~', with the consequence left unsaid) N4

〜に見えるto look ~; to appear ~ (に + 見える) N4

〜のだろうかI wonder if ~; is it (really) that ~? (musing) N4

〜はずがないthere is no way that ~; ~ cannot possibly be the case N4

〜はずだit should be ~; ought to be ~ (logical expectation) N4

〜ばよかったshould have ~ / I wish I had ~ (regret over what wasn't done) N4

〜みたいlike ~; seems like ~ (colloquial resemblance / conjecture) N4

17Ability, plans, and polite interaction33 points0/33

〜みたいに・〜みたいなlike ~; similar to ~ (colloquial likeness/example) N4

〜ような / 〜よなlike ~; ~-ish (adnominal of ようだ); casual よな emphatic N4

〜ように〜てほしいto want (someone) to ~ (so that ~) N4

〜られるpotential られる: can / be able to (見られる = can see) N4

〜予定だto plan to ~; to be scheduled to ~ N4

〜必要があるthere is a need to ~; must ~ N4

いいgood / preferable; forms advice & wish patterns (〜といい, 〜ほうがいい) N4

ことにするdecide to ~ (speaker's own volitional decision) N4

ことになるit comes to be that ~; it is decided/arranged that ~ (outcome not of one's own choosing) N4

ことに決めるdecide to ~ (a one-time personal decision) N4

たらどうですかhow about ~ing? (suggestion) N4

だろcasual contraction of だろう: 'probably ~' / 'right?' (seeking agreement) N4

てほしいwant someone (else) to ~ N4

てもらいたいwant someone to ~ (= てほしい) N4

てよかったI'm glad that ~; it was good that ~ N4

なくてはmust ~ (lit. 'if not ~ then no good'); have to ~ N4

なさいsoft imperative: do ~ (instructive command, e.g. to a child/student) N4

みたいだlooks like; seems like; resembles (colloquial equivalent of ようだ) N4

らしいseems; apparently (hearsay/inference); typical of ~ N4

られないcannot ~ (negative potential of ichidan verbs / られる) N4

聞こえるbe audible / can be heard (spontaneous); contrast potential 聞ける N4

〜と聞いたI heard that ~ N4

そうだI hear that; reportedly (hearsay) — plain form + そうだ N4

いたしますto do (humble form of する) N4

いたすto do (humble form of する, plain/dictionary form) N4

いらっしゃるto be / come / go (honorific for いる・来る・行く) N4

お〜くださいplease do ~ (honorific request: お+Vます-stem+ください) N4

お〜するhumble form: I humbly do ~ for you (お/ご + masu-stem + する) N4

お〜になるhonorific form of a verb (subject-elevating): お+Vます-stem+になる N4

くださるhonorific of くれる: (a superior) gives to me/us; does ~ for me (てくださる) N4

なさるto do (honorific for する) N4

おいhey! (rough/familiar call to get attention) N4

てね(do) ~, okay? — soft request / sentence-final reminder N4

18Everyday particles and quantity21 points0/21

〜から〜までfrom ~ to ~ (spanning a whole range, time or space) N5

〜だけonly / just ~; (extent) as much as ~ (できるだけ 'as much as possible') N5

〜は〜がtopic は marks the theme while が marks the subject within it (X は Y が ...) N5

〜へ行くto go to ~ (direction of movement) N5

しかonly; nothing but (always with a negative predicate) N5

にparticle に (further uses): purpose with motion verbs, exhaustive listing/addition, result N5

にparticle に marking a specific point in time (3時に、月曜日に) N5

〜のsentence-final の: explanatory tone or soft question (casual) N5

〜の中で〜が一番among ~, ~ is the most ~ (superlative) N5

かparticle か: 'or' (listing alternatives — コーヒーか紅茶) N5

なにか・なにもsomething / anything; (with negative) nothing N5

にparticle に marking the agent/source (passive/causative: 先生に叱られる) N5

よね~ right? (assert + seek agreement) N5

誰か・どこか・誰も・どこもsomeone/somewhere; (with negative) no one/nowhere N5

〜かどうかwhether (or not) ~ (embedded question) N4

〜たり〜たりdo things like ~ and ~ (representative listing of actions) N4

〜たり〜たりするdo things like ~ and ~ (with する predicate) N4

でもでも: 'even ~ (extreme example)'; 'even if it is ~'; (sentence-initial) 'but' N4

までにby (a deadline); before ~ happens N4

〜か〜かwhether ~ or ~; either ~ or ~ N4

助数詞counter suffixes attached to numerals to count things, people, and occurrences (〜個, 〜人, 〜回, 〜枚) N5

19Everyday emphasis and choices20 points0/20

〜かなsentence-final 'I wonder / I hope ~' (casual) N4

〜から作るmade from ~ (raw material whose form changes; cf. でできる) N4

〜ずつ~ each; ~ apiece; ~ at a time N4

〜でできるmade of ~ (material); also 〜からできる 'made from ~' N4

〜と〜と、どちらがbetween ~ and ~, which is more ~? (comparison question) N4

〜とか〜とかthings like ~ and ~ (non-exhaustive listing of examples) N4

〜の中でamong ~; within ~ (often a superlative frame) N4

〜も〜もboth ~ and ~; (with negatives) neither ~ nor ~ N4

〜以外other than ~; except ~ N4

〜方がthe ~ side / the ~ one (comparison: AよりBの方が〜 'B is more ~ than A') N4

かしらsentence-final 'I wonder ~' (feminine/soft) N4

とかthings like ~; ~ or something (vague listing or hedged statement) N4

なsentence-final な expressing emotion or seeking agreement (casual ね) N4

なあsentence-final particle of emotion/admiration/wishing N4

などand so on; things like ~; (belittling) the likes of ~ N4

もparticle も: even ~ (emphasis on an extreme/unexpected case) N4

やparticle や: 'and' (non-exhaustive listing — A や B など) N4

をparticle を marking the space/path traversed (公園を歩く, 空を飛ぶ) N4

をparticle を marking the point of departure/separation (家を出る, 大学を卒業する) N4

前からfrom before; since some earlier time N4

20Connect everyday conversations37 points0/37

〜くてte-form of an i-adjective: is ~ and; because ~ N5

〜に行くto go (in order) to ~ (purpose of motion) N5

そしてand; and then N5

それからand then; after that; and also N5

またagain; also; and; moreover (additive connector) N5

すぐimmediately; right away; soon N5

とてもvery (affirmative); (not) at all / cannot possibly (with negative) N5

まだstill; yet; (with negative) not yet N5

もうalready; now; (with negative) no longer; (with a number) ~ more N5

もっとmore; even more (comparative adverb) N5

一緒にtogether (with) N5

あまり〜ないnot very ~; not much ~ (paired with a negative) N5

たくさんa lot; many; plenty N5

どうhow / in what way (interrogative adverb) N5

どうしてwhy; for what reason; how N5

どうやってhow; in what way; by what means N5

なければif not ~; unless ~ (negative ば-conditional) N4

〜あとでafter ~ (doing) / later N4

〜てもeven if ~ / even though ~ (concessive) N4

〜場合in the case of ~ / when ~ / if ~ (a situation or contingency) N4

しかしbut; however N4

だからso / therefore / that's why (states a consequence) N4

ないでwithout ~ing; instead of ~ing; (casual request) don't ~ N4

なくてnot ~ and; because (something) is not ~ (te-form of the negative) N4

のためにfor (the sake of); because of ~ N4

ようにlike ~ (resemblance); so that ~ (purpose); in such a way that ~ N4

全然(not) at all (with negative); totally / completely (colloquial affirmative) N4

なかったらif there is no ~; if (something) is not the case (negative たら-conditional) N4

のならif ~ (is the case) / given that ~ (conditional on a stated supposition) N4

〜し〜し~ and ~ (listing reasons or qualities, non-exhaustive) N4

〜だけでjust by ~ / with only ~ (考えるだけで 'just thinking about it') N4

〜ているあいだにwhile ~ing (something else happens in that span) N4

〜てくれてありがとうthank you for ~ing N4

〜てすみませんI'm sorry for ~ing N4

〜ように祈るto pray / hope that ~ N4

〜んだけど~ but...; ~, so... (softening preface; also 〜んですが) N4

〜場合はin the case of ~; when ~ N4

21Link everyday ideas36 points0/36

〜間(に)while / during ~ (あいだに = at a point within the span; あいだ = throughout the span) N4

うちにwhile ~; before ~ (do something during/before a state ends) N4

けれどbut / however / although (neutral) N4

しand (what's more); listing reasons/states (non-exhaustive) N4

それでand so; therefore; and then (prompting) N4

それではwell then; in that case N4

それでもeven so; nevertheless N4

それならif that's the case; then N4

だけどbut / however (casual contrastive conjunction) N4

と一緒にtogether with N4

なくてもeven if not ~; even without ~ N4

についてはas for; regarding (topicalized について) N4

の場合(は)in the case of; when it is ~ N4

あんまりcolloquial あまり: '(not) very' (with negative) / 'too much, excessively' N4

いかがhow / how about ~? (polite equivalent of どう) N4

いくら(いくら〜ても) no matter how much ~ (also interrogative 'how much') N4

いつ(で)もalways / any time / whenever N4

きっとadverb of speaker certainty: surely; certainly; without doubt N4

さっきa little while ago; just now N4

ずっと(for) a long time; the whole time; continuously N4

そんなにso much; that much; (with negative) not that ~ N4

だんだんgradually; little by little N4

どんどんrapidly; steadily; more and more N4

なかなか〜ないnot easily ~; struggle to ~; just won't ~ N4

なるべくas much as possible; if possible N4

ほかに(も)besides; in addition; other than that (also ほか(に)は) N4

ほとんどalmost; mostly; (with negative) hardly N4

もうすぐsoon; before long; any moment now N4

もし（も）if; supposing that ~ (adverb pairing with a conditional clause) N4

一度once; (一度〜たら/と) once you ~ (then...) N4

何も〜ないnothing; not anything at all N4

全然〜ないnot at all ~; not in the least ~ N4

大変very; terribly; awfully (intensifier) N4

必ずwithout fail / certainly / always N4

本当にreally / truly (intensifier adverb) N4

非常にextremely / very (high-degree adverb) N4

Arc 3

Make longer sentences

4 units · 115 points

22Linking ideas I29 points0/29

ためにin order to (purpose); because of (reason) N3

〜がなければif there is no ~ / without ~ (conditional) N3

〜さえ〜ばif only ~; as long as ~ (that one condition is enough) N3

〜てからでないとunless you first ~; not until ~ is done (then can't proceed) N3

〜でないとif it isn't ~ / unless ~ (otherwise something bad follows) N3

〜でなかったらif it is not ~ (negative-copula conditional) N3

〜でなくてはunless it is ~ / it must be ~ (necessity) N3

〜でなければif it is not ~ / unless it is ~ (conditional) N3

〜でよければif ~ is OK (with you); if ~ will do N3

〜ば〜のにif only ~ (regret/wish, counterfactual) N3

〜ば〜ほどthe more ~, the more ~ (proportional change) N3

いくら〜てもno matter how (much) ~; however ~ (concessive) N3

たってeven if ~ (colloquial concessive, = 〜ても) N3

できればif possible; preferably (also できたら) N3

もしも〜たらif (by any chance) ~ N3

もしも〜ならif (by any chance) ~ (also もしも〜でも) N3

〜おかげでthanks to ~; owing to ~ (positive result) N3

〜か〜ないかwhether or not ~; ~ or not N3

〜からだit is because ~ (sentence-final reason) N3

〜から言うとspeaking in terms of ~; from the standpoint of ~ N3

〜ずにwithout ~ing (instead of doing) N3

〜せいでbecause of ~; due to ~ (blaming a negative result) N3

〜たとたんthe instant ~; just as ~ (and then suddenly; also 〜たとたんに) N3

〜だけで(は)なく(も)not only ~ (but also) N3

〜だけで(は)なく(も)、〜もnot only ~ but also ~ (full correlative 'A だけでなく B も') N3

〜だけでもeven just ~ / at least ~ (見るだけでも 'even just to look') N3

〜てはいけないからbecause you must not ~ (so...); in order to avoid ~ N3

〜ても〜なくてもwhether or not ~; ~ or not N3

〜ではなくてnot ~ (but rather); it's not ~ and... (also 〜じゃなくて) N3

23Linking ideas II29 points0/29

〜で言うとspeaking in terms of ~; in ~ (terms) N3

〜という理由でfor the reason that ~; on the grounds that ~ N3

〜と同じでthe same as ~; like ~ (also 〜と違って 'unlike ~') N3

〜と言ってもeven though I say ~; although ~ (it's less than expected) N3

〜ないうちにbefore ~ (happens); while ~ is not yet the case N3

〜なくadverbial negative 〜なく: without ~; not ~ (e.g. 〜ことなく) N3

〜に合わせてin accordance with ~; to match ~ (also 〜に合った) N3

〜に当たるto correspond to ~; to fall on (a date); to be equivalent to ~ N3

〜に比べてcompared to ~; in comparison with ~ N3

〜のにfor (the purpose of) doing ~; used in doing ~ (のに = の + に) N3

〜の間にwhile ~; during ~ (something happens within that span) N3

〜は言うまでもないit goes without saying that ~; needless to say N3

〜ばかりでonly ~ (and nothing else happens / improves) N3

〜ばかりで(は)なく(も)not only ~ (but also) N3

〜ばかりで(は)なく(も)、〜もnot only ~ but also ~ (full correlative 'A ばかりでなく B も') N3

〜ばかりでなくnot only ~ but also ~ N3

〜ばかりでなく〜(も)not only ~ but also ~ N3

〜ほど〜ないnot as ~ as; nothing is as ~ as (comparative with negative) N3

〜も〜ば〜もboth ~ and ~; not only ~ but also ~ (listing with the ば conditional) N3

〜を込めてfilled with ~; putting (feeling/effort) into N3

〜代わりにinstead of ~ / in exchange for ~ N3

〜最中にright in the middle of ~ (when something interrupts) N3

〜途中で・〜途中にon the way; partway through ~ N3

あとbesides / on top of that / and also (adding a further item to a list) N3

いくら〜でもno matter how much ~; however much ~ N3

おかげthanks to; owing to (a good result: おかげで) N3

くせにeven though; despite ~ (with reproach or contempt) N3

ことからfrom the fact that ~; because of ~ (basis for a judgment) N3

ことでby ~ing; through the fact of ~ (means leading to a result) N3

24Linking ideas III29 points0/29

ことにより/によってby means of ~ing; due to the fact that ~ (formal cause/means) N3

ことは〜ことは〜が: admittedly ~, but ~ (concedes a point before qualifying it) N3

さてwell then; now (topic-shifting discourse connective) N3

するとthereupon; and then; if that's so N3

せいfault; because of (a bad result: せいで/せいか) N3

そうするとif that's the case; then (as a consequence) N3

そうですがthat may be so, but ~ (concessive acknowledgment before objecting) N3

そこでand so; therefore (conjunction introducing a consequent action) N3

そのためtherefore; for that reason N3

そのためにfor that reason; in order to do that N3

その結果as a result (of that) N3

それとand; also; on top of that (adding an item) N3

それともor (else) — alternatives in a question N3

それにbesides; moreover; in addition N3

ただonly; merely; just — also 'but; however' as a connective N3

たとえ〜てもeven if ~ (hypothetical concession) N3

ためだit is because; the reason is that N3

たらすぐas soon as; right after ~ing N3

たらすぐにas soon as; right after ~ing — duplicate entry N3

だがbut / however (clause-initial contrastive conjunction) N3

だってbecause; but (casual sentence-initial reason or objection) N3

ついでにwhile at it; on the occasion of (doing something else) N3

つまりin other words; that is to say; in short N3

というとspeaking of ~; when you say ~ (then) N3

というのはthe reason is that ~; meaning (introducing a definition/explanation) N3

というふうにin such a way that; like ~ N3

というよりrather than ~; more like ~ N3

といえばspeaking of ~; when it comes to ~ N3

ときにはat times; sometimes; on occasions when ~ N3

25Linking ideas IV28 points0/28

ところがhowever; but (contrary to expectation) N3

ところでby the way (topic shift); even if ~ (futile concession) N3

とすぐにas soon as; right after N3

とするとassuming that; if we suppose that ~ N3

と同じくらいabout the same as; as ~ as N3

どんなに〜てもno matter how (much) ~ N3

ながら（も）although; even while ~ (concessive, emphasizing contrast) N3

なしでwithout ~ N3

なぜならthe reason is; because (sentence-initial, formal; often 〜から) N3

なぜなら(ば)〜からだthe reason is, it's because ~ N3

にしてはfor; considering (that it is) ~ (contrary to expectation) N3

にしてもeven if; even so; even for ~ N3

につれてas; in proportion as ~ (changes together) N3

になるとwhen it becomes/comes to ~ (a time, situation) N3

によるとaccording to (a source/report) N3

によればaccording to (a source) N3

に対するtoward; regarding — noun-modifying form に対する N3

に比べるとcompared to; in comparison with N3

に関するconcerning; about — noun-modifying form に関する N3

のだからbecause ~ (giving a reason the speaker treats as established/obvious) N3

の代わりにinstead of ~ / in place of ~ / in exchange for ~ N3

またはor; alternatively (connects nouns/clauses as exclusive options) N3

をはじめ(として)starting with; including (as a prime example) N3

例えばfor example; for instance N3

割に(は)considering ~; relatively / for (something), unexpectedly N3

度にevery time; whenever N3

確かに〜がadmittedly ~ but (concessive pairing) N3

途端(に)the moment that ~; just as ~ N3

Arc 4

Make plans, give advice, and talk with people

6 units · 192 points

26Intention, judgment & interaction I33 points0/33

〜づらいhard to ~; difficult to ~ (verb stem + づらい) N3

〜てごらんtry ~ing; go ahead and ~ (gentle encouragement, to inferiors/children) N3

〜上がる・〜上げるto finish ~ing completely (出来上がる, 書き上げる) N3

〜切るto do ~ completely / all the way to the end (verb suffix) N3

〜切れないcannot finish ~ing; too many/much to ~ completely (negative of 〜切る) N3

〜合うto do ~ to each other; do ~ together (reciprocal verb suffix) N3

〜的-ic / -al: turns a noun into a na-adjective or adverbial (科学的) N3

〜直すto re-do; to do ~ over again N3

〜込むto do ~ thoroughly / repeatedly, or to move ~ inward (compound-verb suffix) N3

〜通すto do ~ all the way through; to keep ~ing to the end N3

てやるdo ~ for (an inferior/animal); (defiantly) I'll show them by ~ing N3

〜ことだshould ~; ought to ~ (advice/recommendation) N3

〜そうにないvery unlikely to ~; shows no sign of ~ing (also 〜そうもない) N3

〜たものだused to ~; would often ~ (nostalgic recollection) N3

〜だけだit's only ~ / simply ~; (after a verb) all that remains is to ~ N3

〜つもりだったhad intended to ~ (but didn't); thought I had ~ N3

〜つもりでwith the intention of ~; acting as if ~ (mindset) N3

〜ている場合じゃないthis is no time to be ~ing N3

〜てもかまわないit's okay if ~; I don't mind if ~ (permission) N3

〜ても始まらないit's no use ~ing; there's no point in ~ N3

〜て済むcan settle/manage by just ~ing; ~ is enough N3

〜とするto assume/regard as ~; to take it that ~ (also 〜うとする 'try to') N3

〜とみえるit seems that ~ (judging from evidence; also 〜とみえて) N3

〜と言えるone can say that ~; it can be said that ~ N3

〜なnegative command 'don't ~' (plain non-past verb + な): 行くな, 見るな N3

〜ないことはないit's not that one can't ~; it is possible to ~ (with reservation) N3

〜に限るnothing beats ~; ~ is the best N3

〜のでしょうかis it (that) ~? (softened, polite question) N3

〜ばいいshould ~; it'd be good if ~; just ~ (suggestion/solution) N3

〜ふりをするto pretend to ~; to act as if ~ N3

〜べきだshould ~ / ought to ~ (strong advisability/obligation) N3

〜べきではないshould not ~ / ought not to ~ N3

〜ようとしないwon't even try to ~; refuses to ~ N3

27Intention, judgment & interaction II33 points0/33

〜ような気がするto have a feeling that ~; it seems like ~ N3

〜わけがないthere is no way ~ / it is impossible that ~ N3

〜可能性があるthere is a possibility that ~ N3

〜必要はないthere is no need to ~ N3

〜難いhard to ~ / difficult to bring oneself to ~ (理解しがたい) N3

ことになっているit is the rule/arrangement that ~; it has been established that ~ N3

ことはないthere is no need to ~; it never happens that ~ N3

しかないhave no choice but to; there is only N3

そうになるalmost ~; came close to ~ing (on the verge) N3

たまらないcan't stand it; unbearably (basis of 〜てたまらない) N3

たらいいかwhat should I ~? (asking what would be good) N3

だろうかI wonder if ~ / perhaps ~ (self-questioning conjecture) N3

てしかたがないcan't help (feeling) ~; extremely ~ N3

てたまらないunbearably ~; can't stand how ~ N3

とは限らないnot necessarily ~; not always the case that ~ N3

ないようにしてくださいplease make sure not to ~; try not to ~ (polite) N3

ならないin 〜てならない: cannot help feeling ~; unbearably ~; also the obligation component of 〜なければならない N3

なんてexclamatory なんて: how ~! / what (a) ~! (surprise or emotion) N3

に違いないmust be; surely; no doubt that ~ N3

まるで〜ようだjust like ~; as if ~ (vivid comparison) N3

ものだexpresses a general truth, used to ~ (reminiscence), or strong feeling/exclamation N3

わけだthat means ~; no wonder ~; it follows that ~ N3

わけではないit's not that ~; not necessarily ~ (partial denial) N3

わけにはいかないcannot (afford to) ~; must not ~ (for social/moral reasons) N3

仕方がないit can't be helped; there's no use (in ~ing) N3

当たり前だit is natural / obvious / a matter of course that ~ N3

考えられないunthinkable; unimaginable; can't believe that ~ N3

〜ということだit means that ~; I hear that ~ (conclusion or hearsay; also 〜とのことだ) N3

〜ように言うtell someone to ~ (indirect request/command) N3

〜んだってI hear that ~; they say ~ (colloquial hearsay) N3

お〜する / ご〜するhumble お/ご + verb-stem + する: humbly do (for a superior) N3

さあwell; come now; let's (hesitation / urging) N3

なるほどI see; indeed; that makes sense (acknowledgment) N3

28Time, degree & adverbial nuance I30 points0/30

絶対にabsolutely; definitely; (with negative) never N3

〜ごとにeach / every ~ (一日ごとに 'every single day') N3

〜ぶりにfor the first time in (a period); after an interval of ~ N3

〜気味-ish / a touch of / showing signs of ~ (風邪気味, 疲れ気味) N3

あまりにもfar too ~; so much that ~ (excessive) N3

おきにat intervals of; every (other) ~ (一日おきに) N3

かなりquite / considerably / fairly (degree) N3

さっぱり(not) at all (さっぱり〜ない); also 'refreshed/clean' N3

しばらくfor a while; for the time being N3

せいぜいat most; at best N3

せっかくwith effort; took the trouble to; long-awaited (and so should not go to waste) N3

せめてat least (if nothing more) N3

それぞれeach; respectively N3

それだけthat much; only that; to that extent N3

たったonly; merely; just (a small quantity) N3

たまにはonce in a while; occasionally N3

だいたいgenerally / roughly / approximately; (discourse) in the first place N3

ちっとも〜ない(not) at all / (not) in the least (with a negative predicate) N3

ちゃんとproperly; neatly; without fail (also きちんと) N3

っぽい-ish; tends to be; has the look/quality of ~ N3

ついunintentionally; before one realizes; just (now/recently) N3

とうとうfinally; at last; in the end (often of an inevitable outcome) N3

とても〜ないcannot possibly ~; by no means ~ N3

とにかくanyway; in any case; at any rate N3

どうかplease (earnest request) / somehow, one way or another N3

どうしてもno matter what; by all means; (with negative) just can't N3

どんなに(no matter) how much / however ~ (typically どんなに〜ても) N3

なかなかquite; considerably; (with negative) not easily / not at all N3

なぜかfor some reason; somehow N3

なんとhow ~!; what ~! (exclamation of surprise/admiration) N3

29Time, degree & adverbial nuance II29 points0/29

なんとかsomehow; manage to ~ (with effort); something or other N3

ほとんど〜ないhardly / almost never ~ N3

まさかsurely not; no way; don't tell me ~ (expresses disbelief) N3

まるでjust like (paired with ようだ); (with negative) not at all; completely N3

むしろrather; if anything; instead (preferring one alternative) N3

めったにrarely; seldom (almost always paired with a negative) N3

もしかしたらperhaps; maybe; by any chance (often with 〜かもしれない) N3

もともとのoriginal; from the very beginning (adnominal form of もともと 'originally') N3

やっとfinally; at last; barely / only just N3

やっぱりas expected; after all (casual form of yahari) N3

やはりas expected; after all; also / likewise N3

やはり / やっぱりas expected; after all (formal/casual pair) N3

わざわざgo out of one's way to ~; take the trouble to ~ N3

一度にall at once; at one time N3

一般にgenerally / in general N3

全くcompletely; utterly; (with negative) not at all N3

全く〜ないnot at all; not in the least (total negation) N3

再びagain; once more (formal/written) N3

別に〜ないnot particularly ~; not especially N3

少しも(not) at all; not in the least (with negative) N3

少しも〜ないnot in the least; not at all (explicit negative form) N3

意外とunexpectedly / surprisingly (more than expected) N3

既にalready; previously (formal) N3

最もmost; to the highest degree (superlative adverb) N3

決して〜ないnever / by no means / on no account (with negative) N3

直ちにimmediately; at once N3

確かにcertainly; indeed; admittedly N3

結局in the end / after all / ultimately N3

結構quite / fairly (degree); also 'fine / no thank you' N3

30Reference, scope & sentence patterns I34 points0/34

〜ほどextent / degree; approximately; the more ~ the more (〜ば〜ほど) N3

についてabout; concerning; regarding N3

〜か何か~ or something (vague alternative) N3

〜きりonly ~ / just ~; (after past verb) ever since ~ (nothing further happened) N3

〜だけしかonly ~; nothing but ~ (emphatic, with negative) N3

〜だらけcovered in ~ / full of ~ (usually something undesirable: 泥だらけ, 間違いだらけ) N3

〜ってcasual って: quotative ('they say ~') and topic ('speaking of ~', = は/とは) N3

〜でも〜でもwhether ~ or ~; any (wh-word) + でも (no matter what/who/where) N3

〜ばかりonly / nothing but ~; just (did) ~ (〜たばかり); approximately ~ N3

〜ほかother than / besides ~ (〜のほか); also 〜よりほかない 'no choice but' N3

〜中(に)during ~ / within ~ / in the middle of ~ (今日中に 'by end of today') N3

〜以外はother than ~ / except ~ N3

〜以来since / ever since ~ (〜て以来) N3

くらいapproximately; about; to the extent that ~ (degree/extent particle, also ぐらい) N3

こそemphatic particle singling out the preceding element: precisely; exactly; it is ~ that N3

さえeven; if only ~ (さえ〜ば conditional) N3

ぞsentence-final ぞ: forceful assertion or emphasis (masculine, casual) N3

だいsentence-final だい: casual masculine question marker on WH-questions (どこだい?) N3

だってeven ~; ~ too (casual, ≈ でも/も) N3

っけsentence-final particle recalling or reconfirming something half-remembered: was it ~? / now what was ~ N3

でさえeven ~ (cites an extreme example to imply the rest) N3

ではでは: contrastive topic 'as for / when it comes to ~'; also 'well then' (transition) N3

としてas (in the capacity/role of) N3

としてはas for; from the standpoint of ~ N3

などと(saying/thinking) things like ~ (often dismissive of the quoted content) N3

などのsuch ~ as; ~ and the like (modifying a following noun) N3

なんかthings like; ~ or something (often belittling); somewhat N3

なんてthings like ~; such as ~ (often dismissive or surprised) N3

にかけてover/through (a span: から〜にかけて); when it comes to N3

にとってfor; to (from the standpoint of someone) N3

にはには — in order to (purpose); for; as for (topicalized に) N3

によってby means of; due to; depending on; (passive agent) by N3

によるdepend on; be due to; be caused by ~ N3

に対してtoward; in regard to; in contrast to N3

31Reference, scope & sentence patterns II33 points0/33

に関してregarding; concerning N3

はは in contrastive/emphatic and advanced uses (grouped with たるや): distinguishing/limiting nuance N3

もんcolloquial もの: gives a reason or excuse with a touch of defiance (~だもん) N3

〜でもあるis also ~; happens to be ~ as well N3

であるformal/written copula 'to be' (である調, used in essays and formal writing) N3

〜かけるto be half-way ~ing; to start to ~ (and not finish) N3

〜てばかりいるto do nothing but ~; to always be ~ing (critical) N3

〜ところだ(aspect) at the point of: about to ~ / in the middle of ~ / just ~ed N3

〜ところだったwas just about to ~; ~ almost happened (near miss) N3

〜は〜となっている~ has become ~; ~ is set/established as ~ (formal state) N3

〜一方だkeeps getting more and more ~ / only increases (one-way trend) N3

ことにしているmake a habit/policy of ~ing; have made it a rule to ~ N3

っぱなしleave ~ (in a state); keep ~ing (without stopping) N3

〜みnominalizing suffix forming a noun of quality/state from an adjective (重み, 楽しみ) N3

通り(に)just as ~; in the way that ~ N3

連用形の名詞用法using a verb's masu-stem as a noun: 動く→動き 'movement', 遊ぶ→遊び 'play' N3

〜に慣れるto get used to ~; to become accustomed to ~ N3

〜は〜で有名~ is famous for ~ N3

〜を左右するto influence / determine ~ (sway the outcome) N3

〜向きsuited for; facing; oriented toward N3

〜向けintended for; aimed at (a target audience or market) N3

〜自身oneself / itself (reflexive emphasis: 私自身, それ自身) N3

〜面in terms of ~; from the aspect/side of ~ (〜面で) N3

こういったsuch; this kind of (≈ こういう, slightly more colloquial past form) N3

こうしたsuch; this kind of (formal, written-leaning equivalent of こういう) N3

となるto become; to come to be (formal result) N3

以後after / from then on / hereafter N3

以降after / from ~ onward (temporal) N3

何〜もas many as ~; many (number question word + counter + も) N3

反語rhetorical question: a question posed for effect, expecting no real answer N3

自分self; reflexive pronoun referring back to the subject N3

行うto carry out; conduct; perform (formal 'do') N3

Arc 5

Say more precisely

7 units · 212 points

32Linking arguments I34 points0/34

〜としてもeven if ~; even assuming ~ N2

〜限り(は)as long as ~; to the extent that ~; while ~ N2

たってeven if one tries to ~ (colloquial concessive of attempted action) N2

〜かというとas for whether ~ / when it comes to ~ (often …ない) N2

〜かと思うとjust when ~ / no sooner... than; at the thought that ~ N2

〜からこそprecisely because ~ (emphatic reason) N2

〜からしてjudging from ~; even (starting with) ~ (〜からして違う) N2

〜からするとjudging from ~; considering ~ (also 〜からすれば) N2

〜からといってjust because ~ (doesn't mean / it doesn't follow that) N2

〜からにはnow that / since / as long as ~ (given that, naturally...) N2

〜から見てjudging from / from the perspective of ~ N2

〜から見るとfrom the viewpoint of ~; judging from ~ N2

〜がきっかけでtriggered by ~; with ~ as the start (also 〜をきっかけに) N2

〜くせしてeven though ~ (critical/blaming, = くせに) N2

〜ことだからbecause it's ~ (given what we know of X's nature/habits) N2

〜ことなくwithout ~ing (even once); without ever ~ N2

〜ずに済むto get by without ~ing; manage not to have to ~ N2

〜た末・〜の末after (much) ~; as the final outcome of ~ N2

〜ていてはif one keeps ~ing (then a bad result follows) N2

〜てこそonly by ~ing; it is precisely when you ~ that... N2

〜であってもeven if it is ~ / even being ~ (concessive) N2

〜という風にin the manner of ~; in such a way that ~ N2

〜ところに・〜ところへright when ~; just as ~ (an interruption arrives at that moment) N2

〜どころかfar from ~ / on the contrary / not only ~ (but) N2

〜にしたらfrom ~'s standpoint; as far as ~ is concerned (also 〜にすれば) N2

〜にも関わらずdespite ~; nevertheless N2

〜に加えてin addition to ~; on top of ~ N2

〜に向けて／向けたtoward; aimed at; in preparation for (a goal or target) N2

〜に応えてin response to ~; living up to (expectations/demands) N2

〜に沿ってalong ~; in accordance with (a line/plan/rule) N2

〜に関わるto affect ~; to be a matter of ~ (命に関わる) N2

〜はともかくsetting ~ aside; regardless of ~ (let's focus on the other thing) N2

〜はもちろん~ of course; not to mention ~ (as well as) N2

〜はもとよりnot to mention ~; let alone ~ (A, and of course B as well) N2

33Linking arguments II33 points0/33

〜は別としてapart from ~; setting ~ aside N2

〜もかまわずwithout caring about ~; regardless of ~ N2

〜ものだからbecause ~ (giving a reason/excuse for something unexpected) N2

〜ものですからbecause ~ (polite explanation/excuse; also 〜もので) N2

〜をめぐって／めぐるconcerning; over; surrounding (an issue or dispute) N2

〜一方(で)on one hand / while / meanwhile (contrast or simultaneity) N2

〜上でafter ~ / upon ~ (doing one thing as the basis for the next step) N2

〜以上(は)now that / since / as long as ~ (given that X, naturally Y) N2

〜以上にmore than ~; even beyond ~ N2

〜反面on the other hand / while ~ (presenting a contrasting side: 〜反面) N2

〜結果as a result of ~ (〜た結果) N2

〜限り(は)as long as / so far as ~ (〜ない限り 'unless') N2

あるいはor / alternatively; possibly / perhaps N2

おまけにon top of that; besides; to make matters worse/better N2

およびand; as well as (formal noun coordinator) N2

かといってthat said / but then again / even so (concessive) N2

さらにfurthermore; even more; in addition N2

しかもmoreover; what's more; and yet N2

そういえばnow that you mention it; come to think of it N2

その上moreover; on top of that; in addition N2

その上にon top of that; in addition (variant of その上) N2

それなのにand yet; in spite of that N2

それにしてもeven so; nevertheless; (still,) that said N2

だからといってeven so / that doesn't necessarily mean ~ (rejecting an over-hasty conclusion) N2

ちなみにincidentally / by the way (adding a related aside) N2

てはif/whenever ~ (then a bad result); repeated alternation N2

てはじめてonly after ~; not until ~ (did one) N2

というかor rather; or should I say N2

ということはthat is to say; which means that ~ N2

というのにeven though ~; despite the fact that ~ N2

というようなsuch ~ as; ~ like (adnominal) N2

というようにin such a way as ~; as if/that (manner) N2

というよりはrather than ~ (than to say) — variant of というより N2

34Linking arguments III33 points0/33

といったらspeaking of ~; when it comes to ~ (also exclamatory 'how ~!') N2

といってsaying that ~; just because ~ (often からといって) N2

といってもeven though I say ~; although ~ N2

とともにtogether with; along with; as ~ (changes) N2

となるとwhen it comes to ~; if it becomes the case that ~ N2

と同時にat the same time as; simultaneously; as well as N2

なしにwithout ~ing; without doing ~ N2

なぜかというとthe reason is that ~ (setting up an explanation) N2

なぜかというと〜からだthe reason being ... is because ~ (correlative frame) N2

なにしろat any rate; after all; the thing is ~ (gives an overriding reason) N2

にかかわらずregardless of; irrespective of N2

にもかかわらずin spite of; nevertheless; despite N2

に伴ってalong with; as ~ (changes, accompanies) N2

に反してcontrary to; against (expectations/rules) N2

に反するcontrary to; against — noun-modifying form に反する N2

に基づいてbased on; on the basis of N2

に従ってin accordance with; as ~ (progresses) N2

に応じてaccording to; in response to; depending on ~ N2

に限らずnot limited to; not only ~ (but more widely) N2

のことだからsince it's ~ (so, knowing them, naturally...) N2

もののalthough; even though (concedes the first clause) N2

をもとに(して)based on; on the basis of ~ N2

を中心としてcentering on; with ~ as the center — variant of を中心に N2

を問わずregardless of; irrespective of ~ N2

を通してthrough; via; throughout ~ N2

を通じてthrough; throughout; via ~ N2

を除いてexcept for; excluding ~ N2

上(に)in addition to ~; on top of ~ (and moreover) N2

従ってtherefore; consequently (formal) N2

要するにin short; to sum up; in essence N2

言うまでもないneedless to say / it goes without saying N2

逆にconversely / on the contrary / the other way around N2

際にon the occasion of; when; at the time of ~ (formal) N2

35Stance, possibility & obligation35 points0/35

〜抜くto do ~ all the way through (despite hardship); やり抜く 'carry through' N2

〜かねないmight (do something undesirable); could well ~ (negative outcome) N2

〜かねるcannot / be unable to ~ (politely decline; find hard to: 分かりかねる) N2

〜かのようだas if ~; as though ~ (it weren't actually so) N2

〜かのようにas if / as though ~ (simile) N2

〜ざるを得ないcannot help but ~; have no choice but to ~ N2

〜っこないthere's no way ~; definitely won't ~ (colloquial strong denial) N2

〜てしょうがないcan't help (feeling) ~; extremely ~ (colloquial, = てしかたがない) N2

〜て当然だit's only natural that ~; of course ~ N2

〜というものだthat's what ~ really is; ~ is just how it is (judgment/assertion) N2

〜というものではないit's not necessarily that ~; ~ isn't always the case (also 〜というものでもない) N2

〜というわけではないit's not that ~; doesn't necessarily mean ~ N2

〜と考えられるit is thought that ~; it can be considered that ~ (objective writing) N2

〜どころではないthis is no time for ~ / far from ~ing (emphatic denial of appropriateness) N2

〜なくて済むto get by without ~ing N2

〜なくはないit's not that ~ isn't so; do ~ to some degree (= なくもない) N2

〜に決まっているmust be / surely / it's bound to be ~ (speaker's certainty) N2

〜に越したことはないthere's nothing better than ~; it's best to ~ N2

〜のではないだろうかisn't it (perhaps) that ~?; I think maybe ~ N2

〜のも当然だit's only natural that ~; no wonder ~ N2

〜ものがあるthere really is something ~ about it; it certainly is ~ (felt judgment) N2

〜も当然だit's only natural that ~; no wonder ~ N2

〜傾向があるthere is a tendency to ~ / be inclined to ~ N2

〜危険性があるthere is a danger / risk that ~ N2

〜得ないcannot ~; it is impossible to ~ (negative of 〜得る) N2

〜得るcan / be able to / it is possible to ~ (potential auxiliary, also うる) N2

たらいいのにI wish ~; if only ~ (regret/desire) N2

てはならないmust not ~ (formal prohibition) N2

ないわけにはいかないcannot help but ~; have no choice but to ~ (social/moral obligation) N2

に過ぎないno more than; merely; nothing but ~ N2

ねばならないmust; have to (formal/written variant of なければならない) N2

ものではないone should not ~; it is not something to be done (general/moral negation) N2

当然だit is natural/obvious that ~; of course N2

恐れがあるthere is a risk/fear/danger that ~ N2

〜とか(で)I heard that ~; ~ or so (hearsay / vague unconfirmed information, also 〜とかで) N2

36Degree, evaluation & adverbial nuance I23 points0/23

〜風にin the manner of / like ~ (こんな風に 'in this way') N2

いきなりsuddenly; abruptly; without warning N2

いつの間にかbefore one knows it; without noticing N2

いよいよfinally; at last; more and more (mounting) N2

うっかりcarelessly; absent-mindedly; by mistake N2

おそらくprobably; most likely (often with 〜だろう) N2

かえってon the contrary / rather / instead (contrary to expectation) N2

さすがas expected (impressively); just as one would expect N2

さすがにas one would expect; even ~ (さすがに〜ない 'even ~ not') N2

そもそもin the first place; originally; to begin with N2

たちまちin an instant; immediately; suddenly N2

ついにfinally; at last; in the end N2

とっくにlong ago; already (well before now) N2

とりあえずfor now; first of all; without delay N2

どうせanyway / after all / in any case (resigned, often pessimistic) N2

どうにかsomehow / manage to (barely accomplish) N2

どうやらapparently; it seems; somehow N2

どちらかと言うとif anything / rather / if you ask which (near-variant of どちらかと言えば) N2

どちらかと言えばif anything / if I had to choose / relatively speaking N2

ますますincreasingly; more and more N2

もう少しでalmost; nearly (came close to ~ing) N2

やがてbefore long; eventually; soon N2

よほどconsiderably; very (much more than usual; also よっぽど) N2

37Degree, evaluation & adverbial nuance II22 points0/22

ろくに〜ないnot properly ~; hardly ~ (ろくに食べない) N2

わずかにslightly; only; barely N2

一切〜ないnot at all / not in the least ~ (total negation) N2

一層even more / all the more ~ N2

一応for the time being / more or less / just in case N2

一気にin one go; all at once; without stopping N2

万が一in the unlikely event that ~; just in case N2

何から何までeverything; from A to Z N2

何しろat any rate; after all; the thing is ~ (emphasizing a reason) N2

何といってもabove all; no matter what anyone says N2

何よりmore than anything; best of all N2

単にsimply; merely N2

実にtruly / really / indeed (intensifier) N2

少なくともat least N2

幸いfortunately; luckily (幸いなことに) N2

必ずしも〜ないnot necessarily / not always ~ (partial negation) N2

思うようにas one wishes; the way one wants (often + neg: not as hoped) N2

明らかにclearly / obviously / evidently (marks an evident conclusion) N2

未だにstill (even now); not yet (after all this time) N2

案外unexpectedly / surprisingly (contrary to expectation) N2

漸くfinally; at last; gradually N2

間違いなくwithout doubt; certainly; for sure N2

38Reference, scope & expression32 points0/32

〜あたりaround ~ / approximately ~; (citing an example) something like ~ N2

〜から〜にかけてfrom ~ through ~ / over the range of (time or space) N2

〜だけはdo at least ~; do all that one can of ~ (emphatic limiting は on だけ) N2

〜でしかないis merely ~; nothing but ~; no more than ~ N2

〜のうち(で)within ~; among ~; while ~ (still the case) N2

〜ぶりafter an interval of ~ (三年ぶり 'first time in 3 years'); the manner/way of ~ing N2

〜分the portion/amount of ~; to the extent of ~ (働いた分だけもらう) N2

〜抜きでwithout ~; leaving out ~ (朝食抜きで) N2

ったらspeaking of ~ (exasperated/emphatic topic); as for ~ N2

といったsuch as; like (giving representative examples) N2

とはwhat is called ~ (definition); the fact that ~ (exclamatory surprise) N2

においてin; at; on; regarding (formal location/domain marker) N2

につきper (each); due to; regarding N2

にもにも — even/also to (emphatic に+も); cf ようにも〜ない 'even if one tries, can't' N2

にわたってover; across; for (a span of time/space) N2

に向かってtoward; facing (a direction/target) N2

に向けてtoward; aimed at; for (a goal/audience) N2

のみonly; just (formal/written equivalent of だけ) N2

も又also; likewise; ~ too (formal) N2

点でin the respect that; on the point of; regarding N2

〜つつあるto be in the process of ~ing; ~ is steadily progressing N2

思われるto seem; be thought; come to be felt (spontaneous/epistemic) N2

〜が気になるto be worried/curious about ~; ~ bothers one N2

〜に気をつけるto be careful about ~; pay attention to ~ N2

〜を〜に任せるto leave ~ to ~; entrust ~ to ~ N2

〜を活かすto make the most of ~; put ~ to good use N2

〜上from the standpoint of / in terms of ~ (法律上, 仕事上) N2

〜甲斐worth doing / the rewarding value of ~ (やりがい, 生きがい) N2

〜自体itself / in itself (それ自体 'the thing itself') N2

いわゆるso-called / what is known as ~ N2

何らかのsome (kind of); some ~ or other N2

何らかの／なにかのsome (kind of) ~; some ~ or other N2

Arc 6

Add nuance in speech and writing

1 units · 42 points

39Advanced common grammar42 points0/42

〜かいcasual sentence-final question particle (行くかい?) N4

だら／だったらcolloquial conditional 'if it is ~' (contraction of だったら) N4

〜ない〜はないthere is no ~ that doesn't ~ (double negative: every ~ does) N4

聞けるcan hear / can ask (potential of 聞く); contrast spontaneous 聞こえる N4

〔数量〕はは after a quantity: at least (that much) N3

〜か〜かどちらかeither ~ or ~ (one of the two) N3

〜かねsentence-final 'I wonder / right?' (masculine/older か+ね) N3

〜は〜くらいです~ is about (the extent of) ~ N3

まででup through (a point), and that is the cutoff; as of ~ N3

てさしあげるdo ~ for someone (humble of てあげる) N3

〜ことなのだthe fact is that ~ (explanatory, softening) N3

〜ても仕方がないthere's no use ~ing; it can't be helped even if ~ N3

〜というのは事実だit is a fact that ~ N3

〜られるhonorific/spontaneous られる: respectful verb form, and spontaneous occurrence (思い出される) N3

〜かは〜によって違うwhether ~ varies depending on ~ N3

〜間はduring the time that ~ / as long as ~ (contrastive period) N3

うちはas long as ~; while ~ (the state continues) N3

に代わってinstead of; on behalf of N3

に関してはas for; regarding (topicalized) N3

のは〜のことだwhat is meant by ~ is ... (defining/clarifying cleft) N3

前者は・後者はthe former ~ (and) the latter ~ N3

〜がちtend to ~ / be prone to ~ (usually undesirable: 忘れがち) N3

あまり(に)〜 / あまりの〜にso much/so ~ that; because of too much ~ N3

めったに〜ないseldom ~; hardly ever ~ (negative pairing of めったに) N3

全部は〜ないnot all ~; not entirely ~ (partial negation) N3

又〜もagain; once more (またも〜 'yet again') N3

〜(の)姿the figure/form of ~; in the appearance or state of ~ N3

ああしたthat kind of ~; ~ like that (distal demonstrative adnominal) N3

普通のordinary / usual / plain ~ (adnominal) N3

最後までuntil the very end; to the last N3

までもないthere is no need to even ~; it goes without saying that ~ N1

〜とは言うもののhaving said that ~; nonetheless N1

〜にかかっているdepends on ~; hinges on whether ~ N1

〜を前提にon the premise of ~; assuming ~ as a precondition N1

〜を踏まえてbased on ~; taking ~ into account N1

いずれにしてもin any case; either way (also いずれにしろ／いずれにせよ) N1

あらかじめbeforehand; in advance N1

かつてonce; formerly; (with negative) never before N1

もはやnow (already); (with negative) no longer N1

〜思いをするto have a ~ experience/feeling (嫌な思いをする, 怖い思いをする) N1

なりにin one's own way; in a manner suited to ~ (それなりに) N1

なりに／なりのin a way appropriate to ~; one's own ~ (adnominal なりの variant) N1

Arc 7

Less common, useful patterns

6 units · 174 points

40Extension — relations & conditions I29 points0/29

〜ないことには〜ないunless you ~, (it won't happen); nothing can proceed without first ~ N2

〜ば〜ほどいいthe more ~, the better (best to ~ as much as possible) N2

〜ようではif it is the case that ~ (then a negative judgment follows) N2

たりしたらif (one were to do) such things as ~ N2

ないことにはunless ~; without ~ing first, (nothing will follow) N2

なしではwithout ~ (there can be no ~); but for ~ N2

なしにはwithout ~ (there can be no ~) N2

のであればif it is the case that ~ / if so ~ (formal conditional) N2

ものならif one could (by any chance) ~; if you try to ~ (often hypothetical/challenging) N2

every time; whenever (per gloss 度に) — reconstruction uncertain N2

〜あげく(に)after ~ (and as an unfortunate result); in the end after much ~ N2

〜か〜ないかのうちにno sooner had ~ than; just as ~ was about to finish N2

〜かと思えばjust when one thought ~ / no sooner... than (variant of かと思うと) N2

〜から言ってjudging from / from the standpoint of ~ N2

〜がけにon the way (while doing); 帰りがけに 'on the way back' N2

〜ことは〜がit is true that ~, but ~ (concessive admission) N2

〜だけあってas one would expect of ~ / fittingly ~ (a deserved, fitting result) N2

〜だけにprecisely because ~ (and so all the more) — a fitting consequence N2

〜だけのことはあってas befits ~ / fittingly because ~ (mid-sentence form of だけのことはある) N2

〜てでもeven by (resorting to) ~ing (to achieve a goal at any cost) N2

〜ては〜てはrepeatedly ~ing and ~ing (alternating/recurring actions) N2

〜という点から考えるとthinking from the standpoint that ~; in terms of the point that ~ N2

〜ところをat a moment/situation when ~ (often despite: お忙しいところを) N2

〜ところを見るとjudging from the fact that ~; seeing that ~ N2

〜とはいうもののalthough; that said; even though (concessive) N2

〜にかけてはwhen it comes to ~ / as for ~ (one's strong point) N2

〜にしても〜にしてもwhether ~ or ~; regardless of which N2

〜にしろ〜にしろwhether ~ or ~; in either case N2

〜に先立ちprior to ~; before (a major event); also 〜に先立って N2

41Extension — relations & conditions II29 points0/29

〜ばかりか〜(さえ)not only ~ but even ~ N2

〜ばかりにsimply because ~ (leading to an unfortunate or unexpected result) N2

〜ままにas ~; just as (one is told / as it feels) N2

〜も〜ば~ and also ~; given ~ then ~ too (listing/cumulative with ば) N2

〜もし〜もするboth does ~ and ~; the verbal listing form using する (parallel to も〜も) N2

〜ようと / 〜ようがwhether ~ or not; no matter ~ (volitional concessive) N2

〜を中心に(して)centering on ~; with ~ as the focus N2

〜を契機にtaking ~ as a turning point; prompted by ~ N2

〜上はin terms of / as far as ~ goes (〜上は / 上では) N2

〜中をamid; in the midst of ~ (often despite difficult circumstances, e.g. お忙しい中を) N2

ことによるto be due to ~; to depend on ~ (ことによると = depending on circumstances, perhaps) N2

さらにはmoreover; furthermore; and on top of that N2

そこでat that point; thereupon (situational 'there, then') N2

それがbut (contrary to expectation); the thing is ~ N2

それどころかfar from it; on the contrary N2

それもand what's more; that too (additive emphasis) N2

ただしhowever; provided that (proviso) N2

ついてはregarding ~; therefore / accordingly (formal connective) N2

つつwhile ~ing (simultaneous); although / even though (つつも) N2

というのは〜ことだX means that ~ (definition frame) N2

とかでbecause of something like ~ (hedged hearsay reason) N2

ときにby the way (topic shift); at the time of ~ N2

ところからfrom the fact that ~; because ~ N2

と並んでalongside; on a par with N2

と同じくthe same as; likewise N2

と逆にcontrary to; conversely to N2

ないでもeven without ~ing N2

なおfurthermore; in addition; (still) more; (formal) note that ~ N2

にしろwhether ~ or; even if; no matter (にしろ〜にしろ) N2

42Extension — relations & conditions III28 points0/28

につけevery time; whenever (何かにつけ; 〜につけ〜につけ) N2

に当たってon the occasion of; when (doing something important) N2

に関係なくregardless of; irrespective of (no relation to ~) N2

に際してon the occasion of; at the time of (a formal event) N2

のち(に)after; later (formal/written) N2

のほか(に)(は)〜ないnothing/no one but ~; only ~ N2

のほかに〜ないnothing but ~; only ~ — variant row N2

のみならずnot only ~ but also; moreover N2

のもとでunder (the guidance/conditions/authority of) ~ N2

の上ではon; in terms of; from the standpoint of ~ N2

の点でin terms of; regarding the point of ~ N2

の関係でdue to; because of (the circumstances of) ~ N2

まだしも~ would be one thing (acceptable), but...; rather ~ N2

もしくはor; alternatively (formal written 'or') N2

をめぐってconcerning; over (a dispute/issue centered on ~) N2

を目指してaiming for; with the aim of ~ N2

を目標にwith the goal/target of ~ N2

一方では〜他方では〜on one hand ~, on the other hand ~ (correlative contrast) N2

思えばthinking back; now that I think of it ~ N2

折time; occasion (formal 〜折に 'on the occasion of') N2

折にon the occasion of; when (formal) N2

末にafter (much ~); finally, as the end result of N2

次第depending on; as soon as (V-stem次第); the circumstances N2

次第でdepending on; according to N2

瞬間にthe moment that; just as N2

第一first of all / for one thing / to begin with (introducing a primary reason) N2

言ってみればso to speak / as it were N2

際occasion; time (formal 〜際 'when/on the occasion of') N2

43Extension — stance & possibility42 points0/42

〜ずnot ~; without ~ing (classical negative auxiliary) N2

〜たまえdo ~ (mild commanding tone, by a superior male to an inferior) N2

〜てみせるdo ~ to demonstrate; resolve/vow to ~ (for show or determination) N2

お〜願うto (humbly) request that you ~ (ご記入願います) N2

ぬclassical/literary negative auxiliary (= ない); also 〜ぬ adnominal N2

〜ことにはならないit doesn't mean (that) ~; doesn't amount to ~ N2

〜ずにはいられないcannot help but ~; cannot refrain from ~ing N2

〜だけ(のこと)だit's simply a matter of ~ / that's all (nothing more to it) N2

〜だけのことはあるno wonder ~ / ~ lives up to its reputation (the effort or quality shows) N2

〜だけましだat least ~ is better (than the worse alternative); should be grateful for ~ N2

〜ないではいられないcan't help but ~; can't keep from ~ing N2

〜に相違ないthere is no doubt that ~; surely ~ (formal, cf. 〜に違いない) N2

〜のももっともだit's only natural that ~; no wonder ~ N2

〜べきかshould ~? / ought one to ~? (deliberative question) N2

〜ほどのことはないit's not so much as to ~ / not worth ~ing N2

〜ものか(emphatic rhetorical) there's no way ~!; absolutely not (行くものか) N2

〜ようか〜まいかwhether to ~ or not (deliberating) N2

〜ようではないかlet's ~; why don't we ~ (exhortation, formal/speech) N2

〜より(の)ほか(は)ないthere is no choice but to ~; nothing but ~ N2

〜よりしかたがないhave no choice but to ~ (= 〜よりほかない) N2

〜よりほかないthere is no choice but ~; nothing other than ~ N2

〜以外にないthere is nothing but ~ / no choice but ~ N2

〜甲斐があるit's worth the effort to ~; ~ pays off N2

ことかexclamatory: how ~! / how very ~ (often with なんと/どんなに) N2

たらいいのだがI wish ~; it would be good if ~ (but) N2

てならないcan't help feeling ~; unbearably ~ N2

てはいられないcan't afford to keep ~ing; can't remain ~ N2

であろうprobably / surely ~ (formal/literary conjecture, = だろう) N2

どれほど〜(こと)かhow much ~! (exclamatory degree, variant of どんなにことか) N2

どんなに〜(こと)かhow very ~! (exclamatory expression of strong degree) N2

ないこともないit's not impossible to/that ~; there is some chance of ~ N2

ないことも／はないit is not that ~ never (happens); the も/は variant of ないこともない N2

ないでもないit's not that ~ isn't so; there is some ~ (cautious affirmation) N2

なくもないit's not that there isn't ~; there is some ~ (cautious affirmation) N2

にほかならないis nothing but; is precisely ~ N2

まいnegative conjecture/volition: probably will not ~; will not (refuse to) ~ N2

ましだis preferable; better than (the lesser of two undesirable options), as in 〜ほうがましだ N2

もう少し／ちょっとで〜するところ(だった)was on the verge of ~; nearly ~ happened N2

全ては〜ないnot all; not entirely (partial negation) N2

とのthe ~ that (said) — quotative modifying a noun (= という before noun) N2

とのことI hear that ~; reportedly (reported information) N2

などとは(quoting) something like ~; the very idea of ~ (often dismissive or surprised) N2

44Extension — expression & nuance I23 points0/23

〜からなるconsist of / be composed of ~ N2

〜や〜やthings like ~ and ~ (listing of nouns) N2

〜やら〜やらwhat with ~ and ~; things like ~ and ~ (listing) N2

それはas for that; that ~ (emphatic/topic 'that's really') N2

ですらeven ~ (emphatic, more formal/literary than でさえ) N2

ともof course / certainly (emphatic); even if ~; both/all (with quantifiers) N2

に限ってonly; of all (times/people) — often emphatic/ironic N2

やらthings like ~; ~ or something (uncertainty / vague listing) N2

わsentence-final わ: soft emphasis, traditionally feminine speech N2

単位でby units of; in units of N2

〜ばかりだthings only keep ~ing (a one-way, usually worsening, trend) N2

〜よう(が/に)〜よう: a way/means of doing (やりよう); 〜ようがない = no way to N2

のなさthe lack/absence of ~ (nominalized ない as 〜のなさ) N2

〜として〜ないnot even one ~ (counter + として + negative) N2

〜限り / 〜を限りにonly; limited to; the utmost/last ~ N2

いかにもindeed / truly / certainly; just like (いかにも〜らしい/そうだ) N2

いつもは〜ないnot always / not usually ~ (partial negation) N2

およそroughly; approximately; generally speaking N2

ことにto one's ~ (emotion): much to my surprise/joy, ~ (嬉しいことに) N2

そうしたsuch; that kind of (adnominal) N2

そのものitself; the very ~ (emphatic, utterly) N2

ただのmere; just an ordinary ~ N2

とうてい〜ないcannot possibly ~; by no means ~ N2

45Extension — expression & nuance II23 points0/23

どういうわけ(だ)かfor some reason / somehow (= なぜか) N2

どうして(だ)かfor some reason / somehow (= なぜか) N2

どこまでもthoroughly / to the very end / persistently N2

みんな〜ないnot everyone/everything ~ (partial negation) N2

一つ(adverbial) for one thing; (softener in requests) just / kindly (ひとつよろしく) N2

一旦once / temporarily; once (一旦〜たら/と 'once you do ~') N2

今更now (of all times) / at this late stage (今更〜ても無駄) N2

仮にsupposing / hypothetically / for argument's sake (仮に〜としても) N2

依然(として)still / as ever / as before (unchanged) N2

僅かonly; a mere; just a little N2

割合comparatively; relatively (adverbial) N2

思い切ってboldly; daringly; resolutely N2

思わずinvoluntarily; unintentionally; in spite of oneself N2

果たしてsure enough / as expected; (with question) really, indeed ~? N2

言わばso to speak / as it were / one might say N2

〜同士among / between fellow ~ / each other (友達同士) N2

〜禁止prohibition of ~ / no ~ing (立入禁止) N2

〜風の~-style / ~-like / in the manner of ~ (adnominal) N2

例のthat (we both know about); the usual; the aforementioned N2

済ませるto finish/settle (something); make do with N2

済むto be finished; can get by (notable for 〜ずに済む / 〜ないで済む 'get by without') N2

自分自分 used as a personal 'I/me' (empathetic/colloquial first person) N2

願うto request/wish; grammatical in polite request frames お〜願います N2

Arc 8

Read advanced Japanese

7 units · 208 points

46Advanced comprehension — relations & conditions I31 points0/31

〜くらいならrather than ~ (I'd sooner do the other thing) N1

〜たら〜ところだif ~ had happened, then ~ would have (counterfactual) N1

〜たら最後once you ~, there's no going back (bad result follows; also 〜たが最後) N1

〜とあればif it is the case that ~; if (such a special situation arises) N1

〜ともなると / 〜となるとwhen it comes to ~; once it's a matter of ~ (then naturally...) N1

〜と言えどもeven though ~; although ~ (formal/literary) N1

〜ばそれまでだif ~, then that's the end of it (also 〜たらそれまでだ) N1

〜ようものならif (by chance) ~ were to happen (then bad consequences) N1

とあってはif it's the case that; given that ~ N1

なくして（は）without ~ (there can be no ~); but for ~ N1

〜あってのA which exists only thanks to B; B that owes its existence entirely to A N1

〜いかんでdepending on ~ (〜いかんで(は) 'according to the state of ~') N1

〜かたがたwhile also doing ~; combining one occasion to serve two purposes (formal) N1

〜かと思いきやjust when one thought ~, contrary to expectation ~ N1

〜がてらwhile doing ~; taking the opportunity of ~ to also do something N1

〜が早いかas soon as / no sooner than ~ (the moment one does X, Y happens) N1

〜ことだしsince ~ (and also...); given that ~ (one reason among several) N1

〜ことなしにwithout ~ing (formal, = ことなく) N1

〜ことのないようにso as not to ~; to avoid ever ~ing N1

〜こともあってpartly because ~ (one contributing reason among others) N1

〜じゃあるまいしit's not as though ~ / since it isn't ~ (so you should... — criticism or reasoning) N1

〜そばからno sooner than ~; right after ~ (repeatedly, often futile) N1

〜たら〜たでeven if/when ~ turns out, that brings its own issue N1

〜た弾みにthe moment ~; in the act of ~, something unintended happened (also 〜た拍子に) N1

〜だろうが／だろうとwhether ~ or not / no matter ~ (concessive with the conjecture form) N1

〜てからというものever since ~ (a lasting change after that point) N1

〜であれwhether it be ~ / no matter ~ (concessive, formal) N1

〜ではあるまいしit's not as if ~ (so you shouldn't...) N1

〜でもあり〜でもあるis both ~ and ~ at once N1

〜といい〜といいboth ~ and ~ (whether you consider one aspect or another) N1

〜といおうかor should I say ~; what one might call ~ N1

47Advanced comprehension — relations & conditions II31 points0/31

〜と相まってcoupled with ~; combined with ~ (compounding effect) N1

〜ながらにwhile remaining ~; in the state of ~ (涙ながらに, 生まれながらに; also 〜ながらの) N1

〜なら〜でif it's ~ then (that's fine in its own way, but) N1

〜ならまだしもif it were ~ that would be one thing, but (this is worse) N1

〜なりas soon as ~; the moment one ~ (immediately followed by the next event) N1

〜にしてみればfrom ~'s point of view; as far as ~ is concerned N1

〜にひきかえin contrast to ~; unlike ~ N1

〜にも増してmore than ~; above and beyond ~ N1

〜に先駆けてahead of ~; being the first/pioneer before others do N1

〜に則ってin accordance with ~ (rules, law, custom) N1

〜に即してin keeping with ~; in line with (the facts/rules/situation) N1

〜に照らしてin light of ~; in accordance with (a standard/precedent) N1

〜に至るto reach (the point/place of) ~; to lead to ~ (also 〜に至った) N1

〜に至るまでall the way to ~; everything from A to B, down to even ~ N1

〜に言わせればif you ask ~; from ~'s point of view (also 〜に言わせると／に言わせたら) N1

〜はいいとしてもeven granting that ~ is fine/acceptable N1

〜はさておきsetting ~ aside; leaving ~ for now N1

〜は言うまでもなくneedless to say ~; not to mention ~ N1

〜もしないでwithout even ~ing (emphatic も) N1

〜ようが〜まいがwhether or not ~; regardless of whether one does ~ N1

〜ようともeven if ~; no matter ~ (volitional concessive) N1

〜ようによってはdepending on how (one looks at / does) ~ N1

〜をいいことにtaking advantage of ~; exploiting ~ (to do something improper) N1

〜をもってby means of ~; with ~; as of (a time) (formal; also 〜を以て) N1

〜を兼ねてserving also as ~; combining ~ (two purposes at once) N1

〜を機にtaking ~ as an opportunity; on the occasion of ~ N1

〜を皮切りにstarting with ~; with ~ as the first of a series N1

〜を経てvia ~; passing through ~; after (a process) N1

〜折にはon the occasion of ~; when (formal, polite) N1

〜甲斐もなくdespite (one's efforts); to no avail N1

48Advanced comprehension — relations & conditions III31 points0/31

かつand / moreover / as well as (formal conjunction) N1

さもないとotherwise; or else; if not ~ N1

しかしながらnevertheless; however (formal) N1

すなわちnamely; that is to say N1

そうかといってeven so; but then again; that said N1

それでいてand yet; nevertheless N1

それゆえtherefore; hence (formal/literary) N1

たとえて言えばto use an analogy; figuratively speaking N1

たところでeven if (one did); no matter how ~ (futile) N1

たなりremaining in the state of (having done); just as ~ N1

とあってbecause (of the special circumstance that) N1

ときたらwhen it comes to ~; as for ~ (often critical) N1

とはいえeven so; although; nevertheless N1

とばかりにas if to say ~; as though ~ N1

ともなくwithout particular intention; somehow (~ともなく~) N1

ともなしにwithout conscious intent (= ともなく) N1

と言わんばかりにas if to say ~; almost saying ~ N1

ないし（は）or; or alternatively; (from) ~ to ~ (formal) N1

ないまでもeven if not ~ (at least); though not to the point of ~ N1

によらずregardless of; not depending on ~ N1

に留まらずnot limited to; not stopping at ~ (but extending further) N1

はおろかlet alone; not to mention; to say nothing of ~ N1

まして（や）let alone; much less; still more so (a fortiori) N1

もっともthough; granted ~, but ~ (concessive afterthought) N1

や否やas soon as ~; the instant that ~ N1

を介してthrough; via (an intermediary) N1

一つにはfor one thing / one reason being ~ (listing reasons) N1

並びにand; as well as (formal listing connective) N1

加えてin addition; moreover; on top of that (formal connector) N1

故にtherefore; because of ~; on account of ~ N1

節にon the occasion of; at the time when (formal) N1

49Advanced comprehension — stance & evaluation I32 points0/32

〜じみたtinged with ~; looking like ~ (suffix, usually negative; 子供じみた) N1

〜そびれるto miss the chance to ~; to fail to ~ (when one meant to) N1

〜びるto take on the quality of ~; to seem/behave as ~ (suffix, e.g. 大人びる) N1

〜ぶるto put on airs of ~; to pretend to be ~ (suffix) N1

〜まくるto do ~ vigorously, relentlessly, or over and over (verb suffix) N1

〜めくto show signs of ~; to take on a ~-like quality (suffix, also 〜めいた) N1

〜損なうto fail to ~; to do ~ wrong / nearly ~ (also 〜損ねる／〜損じる) N1

〜きらいがあるtend to ~ / have a (bad) tendency to ~ N1

〜くらいのものだ~ is about the only one/extent; nothing more than ~ N1

〜ずじまいended up not ~ing (and now regret it / lost the chance) N1

〜ずにはすまないcan't get away without ~ing; must ~ (社会的obligation) N1

〜たことにするto pretend that ~ happened; treat ~ as done (also 〜たことになる 'it amounts to ~') N1

〜たつもりはないdidn't mean to ~; have no intention of having ~ N1

〜たまでだmerely ~ed (and nothing more); just happened to ~ N1

〜ためしがないit has never once happened that ~; ~ is never the case N1

〜だろうにsurely ~, and yet; (also regret) would/should have ~ N1

〜てもどうにもならないeven if ~, nothing can be done about it N1

〜ても差し支えないit's fine even if ~; may ~ (formal permission) N1

〜ても知らないif you ~, I won't be responsible (warning) N1

〜て敵わないunbearably ~; can't stand ~ing N1

〜て済むことではない~ alone won't settle it; it's not a matter that ends with ~ N1

〜では済まないit won't end with just ~; ~ alone won't settle it N1

〜でも何でもないnot ~ in the least; nothing of the sort N1

〜というところ(だ)about ~; at most ~; roughly (というところだ) N1

〜とは比べものにならないcannot be compared with ~; ~ is in a different league N1

〜と言えなくもないone could even say that ~ (guarded affirmation) N1

〜どころの話ではないit's not a matter of ~ / far from it (stronger variant of どころではない) N1

〜ないとも限らないit's not necessarily not ~; ~ might well happen N1

〜ないものかisn't there some way to ~?; can't we ~? (longing wish, also 〜ないものだろうか) N1

〜ないものでもないit's not entirely impossible to ~; might just ~ N1

〜には当たらないthere's no need to ~; it's not worth ~ing (no cause for the reaction) N1

〜には無理がある~ is unreasonable / unrealistic; there's a flaw in ~ N1

50Advanced comprehension — stance & evaluation II32 points0/32

〜にもほどがあるthere's a limit to ~; ~ goes too far N1

〜に値するto be worth ~; to deserve / merit ~ N1

〜に耐えるto be worth ~ing / to withstand ~; (negative 〜に耐えない) cannot bear ~ N1

〜に足らないnot worth ~ing; insufficient to ~ (also 〜に足りない) N1

〜に限ったことではないnot limited to just ~; ~ is not the only case N1

〜ほうがましだwould rather ~; ~ is the lesser evil (better than the worse option) N1

〜ほどのことではないit's not worth ~ing; no need to go that far N1

〜までだ／までのことだit's simply a matter of ~; all one can/will do is ~ N1

〜ものとしてon the assumption that ~; treating ~ as a given N1

〜ものとするshall ~; is deemed/assumed to ~ (formal, legal/contractual) N1

〜ものと思うto assume/firmly believe that ~ N1

〜ものと思っていたhad assumed that ~ (but it turned out otherwise) N1

〜ものと思われるit is presumed/believed that ~ (formal, also 〜ものと見られる) N1

〜も同然だpractically ~; as good as ~ N1

〜ようにも〜ないeven if one wanted to ~, one cannot N1

〜るまでだwill simply ~ (if it comes to that); that's all there is to it N1

〜を余儀なくさせるto compel / force (someone or a situation) to ~ N1

〜を余儀なくされるto be forced to ~; have no choice but to ~ (against one's will) N1

〜んばかり（に）almost as if about to ~; so much that it seems ~ N1

〜切りがないthere's no end to ~; endless N1

〜始末だend up (badly) ~; come to the sorry state of ~ N1

〜次第ですsuch is the situation that ~; that is how it came to be (formal explanation) N1

〜羽目になるto end up stuck in (an unpleasant situation) N1

〜術がないthere's no way/means to ~ N1

〜限りだextremely ~ / couldn't be more ~ (嬉しい限りだ) N1

〜（よう）にも〜ないcannot ~ even if one wants to (no means to) N1

それまでだthat's the end of it; nothing more can be done N1

たくても〜ないeven if one wants to ~, (cannot) N1

てばかりはいられないcan't keep just ~ing; can't afford to only ~ N1

といったところだit's about ~; roughly; something like ~ N1

には及ばないthere is no need to ~; not as good as ~ N1

心配があるthere is a worry/risk that ~ N1

51Advanced comprehension — description & nuance I26 points0/26

〜から〜に至るまでfrom ~ all the way to ~ (emphatic full range) N1

〜からあるas much/many as ~; no less than ~ (emphasizing a large amount; also 〜からする／〜からの) N1

〜か否かwhether or not ~ (formal/written) N1

〜ぐるみthe whole ~ together; ~-wide (家族ぐるみ, 町ぐるみ) N1

〜ずくめall ~; nothing but ~ (黒ずくめ, いいことずくめ) N1

〜だの〜だのthings like ~ and ~; ~ and ~ and so on (often complaining) N1

〜ならではdistinctive of ~; possible only for ~; uniquely characteristic of ~ N1

〜なり〜なりwhether ~ or ~; ~ or ~ or something like it (listing alternatives) N1

〜のやらI wonder ~ (uncertainty; also 〜ものやら／〜ことやら) N1

〜のやら〜のやらwhether ~ or ~ (I'm not sure which) N1

〜下でunder (the conditions / auspices of) ~ (状況下で) N1

すらeven (emphatic, formal/literary) N1

そこを(do it) despite that; overcoming the circumstances (appeal) N1

ただ〜のみだall one can do is ~; nothing but ~ (formal) N1

をemotive を — marks emotion/exclamation, esp. clause-final ものを 'and yet' N1

〜にしてat (a stage/age); only after/in (a period of time) N1

あえてdaringly / deliberately / going out of one's way to ~ N1

あくまでもto the very end / persistently / strictly (emphasizing firmness of stance) N1

あながち〜ないnot necessarily ~ / not entirely ~ (with a negative predicate) N1

いかにhow / however ~ (formal/written どう・どんなに) N1

ことごとくevery single one; entirely; without exception N1

さぞsurely; I'm sure (~ must be...) — paired with conjecture だろう N1

それなりにin its own way; to that extent; accordingly N1

たかがmerely; only; at most (dismissive) N1

ともするとtend to; apt to ~ (= ともすれば) N1

ともすればtend to; be apt/liable to ~ N1

52Advanced comprehension — description & nuance II25 points0/25

どうかするとsometimes / apt to / if things go a certain way N1

どうにも(with negative) just can't; in no way; utterly N1

どうにも〜ないcan't possibly ~ / there's no way to ~ N1

なおさらall the more; even more so N1

まるっきりcompletely; (with negative) not at all N1

下手にcarelessly / ill-advisedly / clumsily (下手に〜と often warns of bad outcome) N1

中途半端に／なhalfway / incompletely / half-heartedly (leaving something unfinished) N1

何ら〜ないnot ~ in the least; nothing whatsoever (emphatic negation) N1

各々each; respectively; every one N1

強いてforcibly; daring to; if pressed (to say) N1

案の定sure enough / just as expected / as feared N1

極めてformal adverb: extremely; exceedingly N1

概ねgenerally; for the most part; roughly N1

見るからにobviously; visibly; just by looking N1

辛うじてbarely / narrowly / only just N1

銘々each; every one; respectively N1

来for the past ~; since (time-span + 来, e.g. 一年来) N1

〜といったらないindescribably ~ / extremely ~ (an emotion or degree beyond words) N1

〜どもhumble/derogatory pluralizing suffix for people (私ども, 野郎ども) N1

〜並みon a par with; at the same level as; average ~ N1

〜如何(だ)how / the state of ~; depending on ~ (formal 如何, often いかんで(は)) N1

いかなるany / whatever / what kind of ~ (formal/written どんな) N1

ならではのunique to; distinctive of; only possible with ~ N1

まみれcovered/smeared all over with ~ (blood, sweat, dust) N1

一〜として〜ないnot a single ~ (一として〜ない, OCR variant of the 一〜 total-negation family) N1

Arc 9

Reference: rare and literary grammar

4 units · 106 points

53Appendix — rare literary links & rhetoric I25 points0/25

〜が〜ならif ~ is ~ then ~ (paired correlative supposition) N1

〜であれ〜であれwhether ~ or ~; be it ~ or ~ (formal, covers all cases) N1

〜であろうが / 〜であろうとwhether it be ~ (or not); no matter ~ (formal concessive) N1

〜いかんだdepending on ~; according to ~ (also 〜いかんでは／いかんによっては) N1

〜いかんにかかわらずregardless of ~; whether or not (also 〜いかんによらず／いかんを問わず) N1

〜かれ〜かれwhether ~ or ~; sooner or later (paired classical adjective stems, e.g. 遅かれ早かれ) N1

〜こそあれthough there is ~ (concession); ~ if anything (formal) N1

〜こそすれ~ if anything, but certainly not (the opposite) N1

〜こととてbecause; since ~ (offering a reason, often as an excuse; formal/literary) N1

〜ずしてwithout ~ing; before ~ (literary) N1

〜ずともeven without ~ing; even if not ~ (literary) N1

〜であろうが／とwhether ~ or / no matter ~ (formal concessive) N1

〜であろうと〜であろうとwhether ~ or ~; regardless of whether ~ or ~ N1

〜といわずnot to mention ~; ~ and everything (〜といわず〜といわず: both ~ and ~ alike) N1

〜といわず〜といわずboth ~ and ~ alike; whether ~ or ~ (no distinction made) N1

〜ならいざ知らずI don't know about ~ (that might be so), but this is different (also 〜はいざ知らず) N1

〜に〜を重ねてpiling ~ upon ~; through repeated ~ (努力に努力を重ねて) N1

〜にあってbeing in (a situation/time/place); under the circumstances of ~ (formal) N1

〜にかかってはin the hands of ~; when ~ takes it on (the result is special; also 〜にかかったら／にかかると／にかかれば) N1

〜にかこつけてusing ~ as a pretext or excuse (to do something else) N1

〜にかまけてbeing preoccupied with ~ (to the neglect of other things) N1

〜にしてboth ~ and ~ (emphatic equating, formal) N1

〜に至ってもeven after reaching the point of ~; even at this stage N1

〜はあってもeven if there is ~ (concessive) N1

〜はあれeven if there is ~ (concessive, literary) N1

54Appendix — rare literary links & rhetoric II24 points0/24

〜は言うに及ばずneedless to say ~; not only ~ (but also) N1

〜ばこそprecisely because ~ / it is exactly because ~ (emphatic, formal reason) N1

〜べくin order to ~ / so as to ~ (formal/literary purposive) N1

〜べくしてinevitably ~ / as was bound to happen (起こるべくして起こった) N1

〜ようたってeven if one tries to ~ (colloquial) N1

〜んがためにin order to ~ (classical, strong purpose) N1

〜傍らwhile / at the same time as ~ (doing X, also does Y) N1

さもなくばotherwise; if not (so) ~ N1

さることながらneedless to say; not only ~ but also (もさることながら) N1

となくindefinitely ~ (どこへともなく, 幾度となく) N1

ともなるとwhen it comes to; once it reaches (a notable level) ~ N1

ともなればonce it gets to; when it comes to (a notable level) ~ N1

にしたところでeven in the case of ~ / even ~ (concessive; it won't change the outcome) N1

に至ってはwhen it comes to; as for (an extreme case) N1

のなんのとsaying this and that; grumbling that ~ (〜のなんのと/〜の〜のと) N1

もさることながら~ is of course so, but (especially) ~ too; not to mention N1

ものを(if only ~) but ~; expresses regret or reproach over an unrealized outcome N1

をおいてほかに(は)〜ないno one/nothing but ~; ~ is the only one N1

をものともせずin defiance of; undaunted by ~ N1

をよそにignoring; in disregard of; despite ~ N1

延いてはand by extension / consequently / ultimately N1

況やlet alone / much less / to say nothing of ~ (literary) N1

考えるにconsidering ~ / when one thinks about it (formal) N1

〜(よ)うと / よしeven if ~; granted that ~ (classical concessive) none

55Appendix — rare forms & expressions I29 points0/29

(unclear) a 〜のように likeness frame N4

〜きってのthe foremost ~; the greatest ~ in (a group) N1

〜たりともnot even (a single) ~ (with negative, emphatic) N1

〜だにeven (just) ~ (想像するだに 'even just to imagine'); (with negative) not even N1

〜なりともat least ~; even just (a little) ~ N1

〜わ〜わwhat with ~ and ~ (exclamatory listing of piled-up events) N1

たるやas for; speaking of (literary topic-emphasis) N1

一〜たりとも〜ないnot even a single ~ (一人たりとも, 一日たりとも) N1

〜がましいhaving the appearance of ~; somewhat like ~ (suffix, often negative nuance) N1

〜てやまないto ~ unceasingly; never stop ~ing (strong, formal emotion) N1

〜かのごとくas if / as though ~ (literary) N1

〜かろうprobably ~ (presumptive of い-adjectives: よかろう, なかろう) N1

〜ずにはおかないwill definitely ~; won't stop until ~ (inevitable) N1

〜ずにはおられないcannot help but ~ (humble/regional variant of ずにはいられない) N1

〜てしかるべきだit's only proper to ~; ~ ought to be done (as a matter of course) N1

〜でなくてなんだろうif this isn't ~, then what is it?; surely is nothing but ~ (rhetorical emphasis) N1

〜ではあるまいかisn't it perhaps ~?; I wonder if it isn't ~ (formal conjecture) N1

〜ともあろうsomeone as prominent/responsible as ~ (shouldn't do that) N1

〜に〜ないwant to ~ but cannot (Vるに Vれない) N1

〜に忍びないcannot bring oneself to ~; cannot bear to ~ N1

〜に恥じないworthy of ~; not to be ashamed before ~ (名に恥じない) N1

〜に足るworthy of ~; sufficient to ~ (also 〜に足りる) N1

〜の何のってindescribably ~; you can't imagine how ~ (intensifier) N1

〜べからず／べからざるmust not ~ (べからず, classical prohibition); 'inadmissible ~' (べからざる, attributive) N1

〜べくもないthere is no way one can ~ / cannot possibly ~ (literary) N1

〜まじきunbecoming of; that one must not do (classical negative obligation, adnominal) N1

〜んとするbe about to ~; be on the verge of ~ (literary volitional + とする) N1

〜如しlike / as if ~ (classical simile: 〜の如し, attributive 如き/如く) N1

いかに〜(こと)かhow very ~! (formal/literary exclamatory degree) N1

56Appendix — rare forms & expressions II28 points0/28

この上ないthe utmost; nothing could surpass this; supreme N1

たくとも〜ないeven if one wants to ~, (cannot) N1

とでもいうべきwhat one might call; so to speak N1

などというものではないit is not something you could merely call ~; it is far beyond ~ N1

に難くないnot hard to ~ (esp. 想像に難くない 'easy to imagine') N1

を禁じ得ないcannot help (feeling); cannot suppress (an emotion) N1

〜の極みthe height/extreme of ~ (set emotional expressions, formal; cf. 〜の至り) N1

〜の至りthe height of ~; extremely ~ (set emotional expressions, formal) N1

あたかもjust as if / as though (typically paired with かのようだ) N1

さもtruly; as if; just as though (さも〜らしい/そうに) N1

どうにもこうにも〜ないcan't do anything at all / there's absolutely no way (emphatic) N1

なまじ（っか）halfheartedly; rashly; ill-advisedly (doing ~ only makes things worse) N1

にもなくuncharacteristically; in spite of oneself (我にもなく / 柄にもなく) N1

ややもするとtend to ~; be apt/prone to ~ N1

ややもすればtend to ~; be apt/prone to ~ N1

よもやsurely not ~; (one would) hardly expect that ~ N1

思うにin my opinion; it seems to me that ~ (formal) N1

極まりないsuffix on an adjective: extremely ~; nothing could be more ~ N1

〜くclassical nominalizing/adverbial 〜く (e.g. 曰く, 願わくは); also the 連用形 adverbial ending of i-adjectives N1

なすform; constitute; accomplish (formal 〜をなす, e.g. 意味をなす) N1

をおいて〜ないthere is no ~ other than ...; ~ is the only one N1

を禁ずるto prohibit; forbid (formal 〜を禁ずる/禁じる) N1

例えて言うならばso to speak; to put it figuratively; if I may use a metaphor N1

keep on ~ing / left in a continuing state none

only once in a while; rarely (...しか〜ない emphatic-negative) none

分けるdivide; separate (main verb) none

大勢a large number of people; in crowds none

嫌いだdislike / hate (na-adjective) none

What can you already do?

Start with Unit 1.